Mutinai háború (44 BC - 43 BC)

Mutinai háború

A mutinai háború egy római polgárháború volt Kr. e. 44 decemberétől Kr. e. 43 áprilisáig Marcus Antonius volt consul, illetve a republikánusok és Octavianus szövetsége között Mutina (a mai Modena) környékén. A szövetség által megnyert háború végeztével Octavianus szakított a köztársaságiakkal, és a Caesar-párt egységét helyreállítva létrejött a második triumvirátus.

Előzmények
Kr. e. 44. március 15-én köztársaságpárti összeesküvők meggyilkolták Caius Iulius Caesart, az elmúlt öt év alatt egyeduralmat kiépítő dictatort. Az elhunyt rendkívüli népszerűségére és a gyilkosok ellen forduló közhangulatra való tekintettel a senatus kénytelen volt kiegyezni a caesariánusokkal, akiket ekkor Marcus Antonius, Caesar consultársa, illetve Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, a magister equitum vezetett. A diktatúrát ugyan eltörölték, és a gyilkosokat sem büntették meg, Caesar intézkedései azonban érvényben maradtak, és nyilvánosságra hozták a plebsnek kedvező végrendeletét is.

Áprilisban Itáliába érkezett apolloniai tanulmányútjáról Caesar unokahúgának fia, az ifjú Caius Octavius, aki egyúttal felvette a Caius Iulius Caesar nevet (ekkortól Octavianusként szokás rá hivatkozni), és a végrendelet legfőbb kedvezményezettje lévén követelte annak végrehajtását a plebs javára is. Antonius azonban nem osztotta ki a fejenként 300 sestertiust, az ifjú Octavianus pedig anyai örökségén sereget kezdett toborozni Caesar veteránjai között, ráadásul azzal vádolta meg Antoniust, hogy kibékült a gyilkosokkal. Időközben Cicero vezetésével a senatus is a consul ellen fordult, és a két csoport hamarosan egymásra talált: Octavianus szövetkezett az alapvetően republikánus testülettel Marcus Antonius ellenében. Az egyre kellemetlenebbé váló helyzetben Antonius jobbnak látta még hivatali évének lejárta előtt, decemberben kivonulni a rendkívül erős katonasággal rendelkező Gallia Cisalpina tartományba.

A háború

Gallia Cisalpina helytartóságát eredetileg az év egyik praetora, Decimus Iunius Brutus Albinus kapta meg, de Antonius elérte, hogy egy népgyűlés a tartományt neki adja, Brutust pedig Macedoniával kárpótolja. Brutus azonban, miután Antonius felszólította a csere végrehajtására, nem volt hajlandó a provincia átadására, hanem a Róma felé vonulást tettetve három legiójával és nagy számú gladiátorral elsáncolta magát Mutinában, ahol a helyi készleteket elkobozva hosszú ostromra rendezkedett be. Antonius, akinek négy legio mellett jelentős számú segédcsapat és testőrség állt a rendelkezésére, ostrom alá vette a várost.

A Kr. e. 43 első napjaiban összeülő senatus mind Antoniust, mind a magát önkényesen társává kikiáltó Publius Cornelius Dolabellát elítélte, és a Caesar-gyilkosoknak, Marcus Iunius Brutusnak és Caius Cassius Longinusnak hatalmas erőket szavazott meg Macedonia és Syria kormányzósága mellett. Az év két consulja, Aulus Hirtius és Caius Vibius Pansa közben megkezdte a készülődést Antonius ellen: előbbi a propraetori rangra emelt Octavianus seregeinek társvezére lett, utóbbi pedig új erők toborzásába fogott. Hirtius és Octavianus öt legiója – kettő Antoniustól állt át, kettőt a veteránok közül toboroztak, egyet pedig újoncok alkottak – felvonult ugyan Mutina elé, de Pansa nélkül nem merték lerohanni Antoniust, így csak kisebb lovascsetepatékra került sor a két ellenfél között. Ugyanekkor Antonius egy híve, Publius Ventidius Bassus három legiót toborzott az Adriai-tenger partvidékén, de Hirtiusék erői elzárták az egyesülés útját, így Bassus nem avatkozott a harcba. Az elméletileg Antonius mellett kiálló, Galliát és Hispaniát igazgató hadvezérek (Plancus, Pollio és Lepidus) szintén nem mozdultak.

Idő közben híre jött Pansa közeledésének, aki négy cohorsnyi erőt gyűjtött; Hirtiusék Decimus Carfulenus (vagy Carsuleius) vezetésével egy legiót és Octavianus praetori cohorsát külték a fogadására a hegyszorosokba. Ezeken át is tudtak vonulni, ám a Mutina felé vezető utat szegélyező mocsarakban Antonius nádasban rejtőző katonái várták őket. Április 15-én itt került sor a Forum Gallorum-i csatára, amelyben Octavianus praetori cohorsa felmorzsolódott, Pansa újoncai pedig megfutamodtak, amikor a consult eltalálta egy lándzsa az ágyékán. Ezt látva Carfulenus is visszavonult képzett emberei élén, Antonius pedig az újoncok után nyomulva körükben is vérfürdőt rendezett. Úgy tűnt, hogy a csata Antonius diadalával ért véget, ám délután megérkezett a kb. 11 kilométerrel távolabb táborozó Hirtius egy pihent legiója élén, és szétverte a kifáradt ellenfelet. Antonius ezután megmaradt csapataival védekezésre rendezkedett be, miközben remélte, hogy Brutus immár jó ideje éhező mutinai alakulatai rövidesen megadják magukat. Hirtius és Octavianus azonban azzal, hogy megpróbálta áttörni az ostromgyűrűt, kierőszakolta az új összecsapást (mutinai csata, április 21.). A harcban Antonius érzékeny veszteségeket szenvedett, és bár Hirtius elesett és elveszett táborát sikerült visszafoglalnia, úgy döntött, hogy felhagy az ostrommal, és elvonult északnyugat felé. A Bononiába szállított Pansa a mutinai csata másnapján belehalt sérülésébe.

Következmények

Antonius megmaradt katonáihoz rövidesen csatlakoztak Ventidius Bassus legiói, ezek élén pedig átvonult Gallia Narbonensisbe, ahol Lepidus (katonái nyomásának engedelmeskedve is) befogadta őt. A diadal hírére a senatus a haza ellenségévé nyilvánította Antoniust, a mutinai diadalért pedig Decimus Brutust imperatori címmel és triumphusszal jutalmazták meg. Amikor hír érkezett Antonius és Lepidus összefogásáról, félelmükben segítséget kértek Cassiustól és Brutustól, akiket főhatalommal ruháztak fel, illetve Sextus Pompeiustól, akit flottaparancsnokká neveztek ki. Két africai legiót is hazahívtak, Lepidust pedig szintén a haza ellenségévé nyilvánították.

Octavianus számára – akit eddig is súlyos személyes sérelmek értek (Brutusszal ellentétben csupán ovatiót szavaztak meg neki, imperatori kinevezést nem kapott, ráadásul hiába követelte a consulságot) – ezek a Caesar-gyilkosok és Pompeius-pártiak felé közelítő lépések elfogadhatatlanok voltak. Nyolc legiója élén végül megindult Rómába, amit az africai legiók átállása miatt harc nélkül foglalt el. A senatus ilyen helyzetben augusztus 19-én kénytelen volt consullá kinevezni a huszadik évében járó fiatalembert rokona, Quintus Pedius kollégájaként. Octavianus, aki Antonius elvonulása óta békülékeny gesztusokat tett utóbbinak és híveinek, ezután felvette a kapcsolatot a caesariánus hadvezérekkel. Consulként intézkedett ellenséggé nyilvánításuk eltörléséről, végül novemberben megkötötte Lepidusszal és Antoniusszal a második triumvirátust Bononia városában. A Caesar-párt egysége így helyreállt, és megkezdődhetett a republikánusok elleni háború.

A Forum Gallorum-i csata

Dátum:          
Kr. e. 44 decembere – Kr. e. 43 áprilisa

Helyszín:        
Itália, Mutina környéke

Eredmény:    
Antonius hiába ostromolja Mutinát, a köztársaságiak pedig elvonulásra kényszerítik

Harcoló felek:

Marcus Antonius         Octavianus és a republikánusok

Parancsnokok:

Marcus Antonius         Aulus Hirtius†

Caius Vibius Pansa†

C. Iulius Caesar Octavianus
D. Iunius Brutus Albinus

Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE)

 The Bar Kokhba revolt 132–136 CE; Hebrew: מרד בר כוכבא‎ or mered bar kokhba) against the Roman Empire, was the third major rebellion by the Jews of Judaea Province being the last of the Jewish-Roman Wars. Simon bar Kokhba, the commander of the revolt, was acclaimed as a Messiah, a heroic figure who could restore Israel. The revolt established an independent state of Israel over parts of Judea for over two years, but a Roman army made up of six full legions with auxiliaries and elements from up to six additional legions finally crushed it. The Romans then barred Jews from Jerusalem, except to attend Tisha B'Av. Although Jewish Christians hailed Jesus as the Messiah and did not support Bar Kokhba, they were barred from Jerusalem along with the rest of the Jews. The war and its aftermath helped differentiate Christianity as a religion distinct from Judaism, see also List of events in early Christianity.The rebellion is also known as The Third Jewish-Roman War or The Third Jewish Revolt, though some historians relate it as Second Jewish Revolt, not counting the Kitos War, 115–117 CE.

Background

After the failed Great Jewish Revolt in 70 CE, the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province of Iuadea. Instead of a procurator, they installed a praetor as a governor and stationed an entire legion, the X Fretensis. Because the Great Revolt of 70 CE had resulted in the destruction of Jerusalem, the Council at Yavne provided spiritual guidance for the Jewish nation, both in Judea and throughout the Jewish diaspora. The tensions continued to build up in the consequence of the Kitos War, the second large-scale Jewish insurrection in the Eastern Mediterranean, which final stages were fought in Judaea.

Multiple reasons have been offered for the beginning of the Bar Kokhba revolt. One interpretation is that in 130 CE, Emperor Hadrian visited the ruins of the temple. At first sympathetic towards the Jews, Hadrian promised to rebuild the temple, but the Jews felt betrayed when they found out that his intentions were to rebuild the Jewish temple upon the ruins of the Second Temple, which was to be dedicated to Jupiter. A rabbinic version of this story claims that Hadrian was planning on rebuilding the Temple, but a malevolent Samaritan convinced him not to.

An additional legion, the VI Ferrata, was stationed in the province to maintain order, and the works commenced in 131 CE after the governor of Judaea Tineius Rufus performed the foundation ceremony of Aelia Capitolina, the city’s projected new name. "Ploughing up the Temple" was a religious offence that turned many Jews against the Roman authorities. The tensions grew higher when Hadrian abolished circumcision (brit milah), which he, a Hellenist, viewed as mutilation. Subsequently, it is known that a Roman coin inscribed Aelia Capitolina was issued in 132, right with the revolt beginnings.

Revolt

The Jewish sage Rabbi Akiva (alternatively Akiba) indulged the possibility that Simon Bar Kosiba (Bar Kokhba) could be the Jewish Messiah, and gave him the surname "Bar Kokhba" meaning "son of a star" in the Aramaic language, from the Star Prophecy verse from Numbers 24:17: "There shall come a star out of Jacob"

At the time, Jewish Christians were still a minor sect of Judaism, and most historians believe that it was this messianic claim in favor of Bar Kokhba alienated many of them, who believed that the true Messiah was Jesus, and sharply deepened the schism between Jews and Messianic Jews.

The Jewish leaders carefully planned the second revolt to avoid numerous mistakes that had plagued the first Great Jewish Revolt sixty years earlier. In 132, a revolt led by Bar Kokhba quickly spread from Modi'in across the country, cutting off the Roman garrison in Jerusalem.

Roman reaction

The outbreak took the Romans by surprise. Hadrian called his general Sextus Julius Severus from Britain, and troops were brought from as far as the Danube. The size of the Roman army amassed against the rebels was much larger than that commanded by Titus sixty years earlier. Roman losses were very heavy - XXII Deiotariana was disbanded after serious losses. In addition, some argue that Legio IX Hispana disbandment in the mid 2nd century could also have been a result of this war.

The struggle lasted for three years before the revolt was brutally crushed in the summer of 135 CE. After losing Jerusalem, Bar Kokhba and the remnants of his army withdrew to the fortress of Betar, which also subsequently came under siege. The Jerusalem Talmud relates that the numbers slain were enormous, that the Romans "went on killing until their horses were submerged in blood to their nostrils". The Talmud also relates that for seventeen years the Romans did not allow the Jews to bury their dead in Betar.

"The Era of the redemption of Israel"

A sovereign State of Israel was restored for two and a half years that followed. The functional public administration was headed by Simon Bar Kokhba, who took the title Nasi Israel (prince [lord, president] of Israel). The "Era of the redemption of Israel" was announced, contracts were signed and coins were minted in large quantity in silver and copper with corresponding inscriptions (all were struck over foreign coins).

Bar Kokhba's tetradrachm. Obverse: the Jewish Temple facade with the rising star. Reverse: A lulav, the text reads: "to the freedom of Jerusalem"

It has been argued that attempts were made to restore the Temple in Jerusalem, but the evidence—letters written in Jerusalem and dated to the revolutionary era—has turned out to belong to the revolt of 66–70.

Outcome of the war

According to Cassius Dio, 580,000 Jews were killed, and 50 fortified towns and 985 villages razed. Cassius Dio claimed that "Many Romans, moreover, perished in this war. Therefore, Hadrian, in writing to the Senate, did not employ the opening phrase commonly affected by the emperors: 'If you and your children are in health, it is well; I and the army are in health.'"

Hadrian attempted to root out Judaism, which he saw as the cause of continuous rebellions. He prohibited the Torah law and the Hebrew calendar, and executed Judaic scholars. The sacred scroll was ceremonially burned on the Temple Mount.

At the former Temple sanctuary, he installed two statues, one of Jupiter, another of himself. In an attempt to erase any memory of Judea or Ancient Israel, he wiped the name off the map and replaced it with Syria Palaestina (after the Philistines, the ancient enemies of the Jews), supplanting earlier terms, such as "Judaea" and Israel.

Similarly, he re-established Jerusalem but now as the Roman pagan polis of Aelia Capitolina, and Jews were forbidden from entering it, except on the day of Tisha B'Av.

A cluster of papyrus containing Bar Kokhba's orders found in the Judean desert by modern Israeli archeologist Yigael Yadin.

According to a Rabbinic midrash (the Ten Martyrs), in addition to Bar Kokhba the Romans executed ten leading members of the Sanhedrin: the high priest, R. Ishmael; the president of the Sanhedrin, R. Shimon ben Gamaliel; R. Akiba; R. Hanania ben Teradion; the interpreter of the Sanhedrin, R. Huspith; R. Eliezer ben Shamua; R. Hanina ben Hakinai; the secretary of the Sanhedrin, R. Yeshevav; R. Yehuda ben Dama; and R. Yehuda ben Baba. The Rabbinic account describes agonizing tortures: R. Akiba was flayed, R. Ishmael had the skin of his head pulled off slowly, and R. Hanania was burned at a stake, with wet wool held by a Torah scroll wrapped around his body to prolong his death.

By destroying association of Jews to Judea and forbidding the practice of Jewish faith, Hadrian aimed to root out a nation that engaged heavy casualties on the Empire. Yet, Hadrian's death in 138 CE marked a significant relief to the surviving Jewish communities. Rabbinic Judaism had already become a portable religion, centered around synagogues, and the Jews themselves kept books and dispersed throughout the Roman world and beyond.

Long-term consequences and historic importance

Constantine I allowed Jews to mourn their defeat and humiliation once a year on Tisha B'Av at the Western Wall. Jews remained scattered for close to two millennia; their numbers in the region fluctuated with time.

Modern historians have come to view the Bar-Kokhba Revolt as being of decisive historic importance. The massive destruction and loss of life occasioned by the revolt has led some scholars to date the beginning of the Jewish diaspora from this date. They note that, unlike the aftermath of the First Jewish-Roman War chronicled by Josephus, the majority of the Jewish population of Judea was either killed, exiled, or sold into slavery after the Bar-Kokhba Revolt, and Jewish religious and political authority was suppressed far more brutally. After the revolt the Jewish religious center shifted to the Babylonian Jewish community and its scholars. Judea would not be a center of Jewish religious, cultural, or political life again until the modern era, though Jews continued to live there and important religious developments still occurred there. In Galilee, the Jerusalem Talmud was compiled in the 2nd–4th centuries. Eventually, Safed became known as a center of Jewish learning, especially Kabbalah in the 15th century.

Expulsion of the Jews from Jerusalem during the reign of Hadrian. A miniature from the 15th century manuscript "Histoire des Empereurs".

Historian Shmuel Katz writes that even after the disaster of the revolt:

"Jewish life remained active and productive. Banished from Jerusalem, it now centred on Galilee. Refugees returned; Jews who had been sold into slavery were redeemed. In the centuries after Bar Kochba and Hadrian, some of the most significant creations of the Jewish spirit were produced in Palestine. It was there that the Mishnah was completed and the Jerusalem Talmud was compiled, and the bulk of the community farmed the land."

The Galilee in late antiquity.

Katz lists the communities left in Palestine:

"43 Jewish communities in Palestine in the sixth century: 12 on the coast, in the Negev, and east of the Jordan, and 31 villages in Galilee and in the Jordan valley."

The disastrous end of the revolt also occasioned major changes in Jewish religious thought. Messianism was abstracted and spiritualized, and rabbinical political thought became deeply cautious and conservative. The Talmud, for instance, refers to Bar-Kokhba as "Ben-Kusiba", a derogatory term used to indicate that he was a false Messiah.

The deeply ambivalent rabbinical position regarding Messianism, as expressed most famously in the Rambam's (also known as Maimonides) "Epistle to Yemen", would seem to have its origins in the attempt to deal with the trauma of a failed Messianic uprising.

In the post-rabbinical era, however, the Bar-Kokhba Revolt became a symbol of valiant national resistance. The Zionist youth movement Betar took its name from Bar-Kokhba's traditional last stronghold, and David Ben-Gurion, Israel's first prime minister, took his Hebrew last name from one of Bar-Kokhba's generals.

A popular children's song, included in the curriculum of Israeli kindergartens, has the refrain "Bar Kokhba was a Hero/He fought for Liberty" and its words describe Bar Kokhba as being captured, thrown into a lion's den but managing to escape riding on the lion's back.

Further relations between the Jews and the Roman Empire

Other articles: Jewish revolt against Gallus and Revolt against Heraclius

In 351–352 CE, the Jews launched yet another revolt, provoking once again heavy retribution.

In 438 CE, when the Empress Eudocia removed the ban on Jews' praying at the Temple site, the heads of the Community in Galilee issued a call "to the great and mighty people of the Jews" which began: "Know that the end of the exile of our people has come!"

During the 5th and the 6th centuries, a series of Samaritan insurrections broke out across the Palaestina Prima province. Especially violent were the third and the fourth revolts, which resulted in almost entire annihilation of the Samaritan community. It is likely that the 4th Samaritan Revolt was joined by the Jewish community, which had also suffered a brutal suppression of Israelite (Mosaic) religion.

In the belief of restoration to come, the Jews made an alliance with the Persians who invaded Palaestina Prima in 614, fought at their side, overwhelmed the Byzantine garrison in Jerusalem, and for five years governed the city.[16] However, their autonomy was brief: with the withdrawal of Persian forces, Jews surrendered to Byzantine forces in 625 CE and were consequently massacred by them in 629 CE. The Byzantine (Eastern Roman Empire) control of the region was finally lost to the Muslim Arab armies in 637 CE, when Umar ibn al-Khattab completed the conquest of Akko.

Sources

The best recognized sources are Cassius Dio, Roman History (book 69) and Aelius Spartianus, Life of Hadrian (in the Augustan History). The discovery of the Dead Sea scrolls has added some new historical data.